Crosslinked amine polymers

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods and compositions for the treatment of ion imbalances. In particular, the invention provides polymeric and pharmaceutical compositions comprising crosslinked amine polymers. Methods of use of the polymeric and pharmaceutical compositions for therapeutic and/or prophylactic benefits are disclosed herein. Examples of these methods include the treatment of renal diseases and hyperphosphatemia.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 10/806,495 entitled CROSSLINKED AMINE POLYMERS, filed Mar. 22, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,335,795; Ser. No. 10/965,044 entitled ANION-BINDING POLYMERS AND USES THEREOF, filed Oct. 13, 2004, and Ser. No. 10/701,385 entitled ANION-BINDING POLYMERS AND USES THEREOF, filed Nov. 3, 2003, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and to which applications we claim priority under 35 USC § 120.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In patients with normal kidney function, calcium and phosphorous balance is maintained through the interaction of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol, an active metabolite of vitamin D. PTH provides a mechanism for controlling extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations by regulating intestinal reabsorption, renal excretion, and exchange of these ions between the extracellular fluid and bone.

With progressive renal insufficiency, however, there is increased phosphorus retention by the failing kidney. In order to restore phosphorus balance, compensatory elevation in PTH levels is triggered, which increases renal resorption of calcium, while decreasing tubular resorption of phosphorus. The net effect of compensatory hyperparathyroidism in this early stage of renal disease is that serum phosphorus levels are maintained within the normal range.

The retention of phosphorus as a result of the decreased ability of the diseased kidney to excrete the filtered phosphate leads to a decrease in serum free calcium, which in turn stimulates the secretion of more PTH. With each progressive reduction in kidney function, a new steady state is achieved in which serum phosphate is restored to normal at the expense of a sustained high level of PTH. The cycle is repeated as renal function declines until sustained and severe hyperparathyroidism is present; eventually the compensatory mechanism is not able to control the increasing serum phosphorous levels. Once the glomerular filtration rate has decreased to <20% of normal, overt hyperphosphatemia becomes evident. In end-stage renal disease patients (where the compensatory mechanism mediated by PTH is no longer effective), the increase in plasma phosphate results not only from decreased excretion but also from continual high levels of PTH, which further exacerbates the problem by releasing calcium and phosphate from the bone.

The clinical manifestations of hyperphosphatemia are varied and have considerable mortality risks. Severe hyperphosphatemia can induce hypocalcemia, which aggravates the imbalance in PTH levels further by increasing the production of this hormone. Hyperphosphatemia inhibits renal synthesis of calcitriol, which causes an exacerbation of the hypocalcemia condition. The occurrence of severe hypocalcemia with tetany and ectopic calcifications is the most severe manifestation of hyperphosphatemia. Calcification may occur in the joints, soft tissues, lungs, kidney, and conjuctiva. Soft tissue calcification has been linked to cardiovascular risk, and cardiovascular disease is the cause of death in more than 45% of all dialysis patients. Renal osteodystrophy with effects on the bones and muscles is common in end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients, as well as severe pruritis. The high PTH level associated with developing and severe renal disease has indirect actions on the central and peripheral nervous system, and the myocardial tissues, creating further disorders such as hyperlipemia, muscle growth retardation, arteriosclerosis, bone loss, and immunodeficiency.

Prevention and treatment of hyperphosphatemia is achieved by a variety of means, including dietary control of phosphorus intake, dialysis and oral phosphate binders. Dialysis, however, does not remove phosphate ions well from the serum because of the slow equilibrium between intracellular and extracellular phosphorus. The treatments of choice focus instead on a phosphorus controlled diet and the administration of phosphate binders taken at meals. A low phosphorus diet is not a long-term option, however, since patient compliance is difficult and the daily dietary phosphorus intake cannot be lowered below ˜1000 mg/day, without restricting protein intake even further than the 1.2 g/kg/day of protein recommended for hemodialysis patients.

Oral phosphate binders comprise two main classes: inorganic metal salts and polymer resins, often referred to as metal-free binders. Examples of the former category include compounds such as aluminum carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium acetate (PhosLo), and lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol). While aluminum and calcium salts have been the treatment of choice for years, they produce soluble metal ions that cross the gastrointestinal membrane and enter the blood stream, producing toxic effects. For instance, aluminum carbonate salts have been shown to be involved in cases of encephalopathy and aluminum osteopathy due to aluminum bone absorption. Calcium binders also generate large amounts of soluble calcium cations, the absorption of which can cause hypercalcemia. Further, although the causative effect is not fully demonstrated, high calcium x phosphate product has been held responsible for soft tissue calcification and cardiovascular disease. Lanthanum carbonate seems to produce less metal absorption, but bone accumulation of lanthanum has been established and the long-term effect of such accumulation in humans is still unclear.

Metal free binders include ion exchange resins and crosslinked polyallylamine resins. Ion exchange resins include cholestyramine, colestipol hydrochloride, and Dowex. These resins have been proposed as an alternative to metal salts, but their low capacity and their lack of palatability have precluded their wide use in the clinic. Crosslinked polyallylamine, like sevelamer hydrochloride (Renagel), was introduced as the next generation of metal-free phosphate binder resins. However, the phase 1 clinical trials performed on healthy volunteers indicate that the in vivo binding capacity of Renagel is much lower than anticipated from in vitro studies. As a consequence ESRD patients still need a high dosage of Renagel to meet clinical end-points, leading to adverse effect such as gastrointestinal discomfort and problems with patient compliance.

Accordingly, there is a need to develop better phosphate binding therapies, with reduced side effects for patients with hyperphosphatemia.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention relates to polymeric compositions comprising crosslinked amine moieties. In a first embodiment the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula I

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; m is equal to or greater than 1; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

A second embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula II

wherein p is 1, 2, 3, or 4; each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; R₂ and R₃, each independently, are H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl, with the proviso that when p=1, both R₂ and R₃ are not H and when p=2, 3, or 4, R₂ and R₃ are H, alkyl or —C(R₁)₂—R₄—N(R₁)₂, R₄ being either a bond or methylene; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

A third embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula III

wherein q is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

A fourth embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula IV

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; each r, independently, is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

A fifth embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula V

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; each r, independently, is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

In another aspect, the invention provides methods of treating an animal, including a human. The method generally involves administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer described herein.

Another aspect of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more polymers of the present invention with at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The polymers described herein have several therapeutic applications. For example, the crosslinked amine polymers are useful in removing phosphate, from the gastrointestinal tract. In some embodiments, the crosslinked amine polymers are used in the treatment of phosphate imbalance disorders and renal diseases.

In yet another aspect, the crosslinked amine polymers are useful for removing other anionic solutes, such as chloride, bicarbonate, and/or oxalate ions. Polymers removing oxalate ions find use in the treatment of oxalate imbalance disorders. Polymers removing chloride ions find use in treating acidosis, for example. In some embodiments, the crosslinked amine polymers are useful for removing bile acids and related compounds.

The invention further provides compositions containing any of the above polymers where the polymer is in the form of particles and where the polymeric particles are encased in an outer shell.

In another aspect, the invention provides pharmaceutical compositions. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition contains a polymer of the invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In some embodiments, the composition is a liquid formulation in which the polymer is dispersed in a liquid vehicle of water and suitable excipients. In some embodiments, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an anion-binding polymer that binds a target anion, and one or more suitable pharmaceutical excipients, where the composition is in the form of a chewable or mouth-disintegrating tablet. In some embodiments the chewable tablet contains a pharmaceutical excipient selected from the group consisting of sucrose, mannitol, xylitol, maltodextrin, fructose, sorbitol, and combinations thereof, and is produced by a process where the polymer is pre-formulated with the excipient to form a solid solution. In some embodiments the target anion of the polymer is phosphate. In some embodiments the anion-binding polymer is more than about 50% of the weight of the tablet. In some embodiments, the tablet is of cylindrical shape with a diameter of about 22 mm and a height of about 4 mm and the anion binding polymer comprises more than about 1.6 gm of the total weight of the tablet. In some of the chewable tablets of the invention, the excipients are chosen from the group consisting of sweetening agents, binders, lubricants, and disintegrants. Optionally, the polymer is present as particles of less than about 40 μm mean diameter. In some of these embodiments, the sweetening agent is selected from the group consisting of sucrose, mannitol, xylitol, maltodextrin, fructose, and sorbitol, and combinations thereof.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Crosslinked Amine Polymers

In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of using compositions comprising a polymer that contains crosslinked amine moieties. Polymers, including homopolymers and copolymers, with repeating crosslinked amine units are referred to herein as crosslinked amine polymers. The repeating amine units in the polymer can be separated by the same or varying lengths of repeating linker (or intervening) units. In some embodiments, the polymers comprise of repeat units of an amine plus intervening linker unit. In other embodiments, multiple amine units are separated by one or more linker units.

In a first embodiment the invention is a method for removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal by administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula I

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; m is equal to or greater than 1; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

Preferred amines of formula I include:

A second embodiment of the invention is a method of removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal subject by administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula II

wherein p is 1, 2, 3, or 4; each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; R₂ and R₃, each independently, are H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl, with the proviso that when p=1, both R₂ and R₃ are not H and when p=2, 3, or 4, R₂ and R₃ are H, alkyl or —C(R₁)₂—R₄—N(R₁)₂, R₄ being either a bond or methylene; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

Preferred amines of formula II include:

A third embodiment of the invention is a method of removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal by administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula III

wherein q is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

Preferred amines of formula III include:

A fourth embodiment of the invention is a method of removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal by administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula IV

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; each r, independently, is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

A preferred amine of formula IV includes:

A fifth embodiment of the invention is a method of removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal by administering an effective amount of a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula V

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; each r, independently, is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group; and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent.

Preferred amines of formula V include:

In another aspect, the present invention provides compositions comprising a polymer that contains crosslinked amine moieties. These polymers, including homopolymers and copolymers, comprise of repeating crosslinked amine units.

In a first embodiment the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula I as described above. A second embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula II as described above. A third embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula III as described above. A fourth embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula IV as described above. A fifth embodiment of the invention is a crosslinked amine polymer, wherein said polymer comprises an amine of formula V as described above.

The polymers comprising of an amine of Formula II have been described above with p=1-4. In addition, in some of the embodiments, the amines of Formula II include amines wherein p is greater than 4. In various embodiments, p can be more than 8, more than 12, more than 16, or more than 20. In other embodiments, p can be less than 25, less than 20, less than 15, or less than 10.

The amines represented by general formulas I-VI can be synthesized by methods well known in the art. These synthesis techniques include catalytic conversion from alcohols, reductive amination of carbonyl compounds, Michael additions, and hydrogenation of nitrites (see, for example, Karsten Eller et al, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA). Several small amine monomers and/or amine plus intervening linker units are also commercially available.

In one embodiment, an amine useful in the present invention, tetramethylene tetramine, depicted below, is synthesized by catalytic hydrogenation of the commercially available diaminomaleonitrile (DAMN):

Polymerization can be achieved by methods known to those in the art, examples of which are illustrated in detail in the Examples disclosed herein. For example, the crosslinking reaction is carried out either in solution of bulk (i.e. using the neat amine and neat crosslinker compounds) or in dispersed media. When a bulk process is used, solvents are selected so that they co-dissolve the reactants and do not interfere with the amine crosslinking reaction. Suitable solvents include water, low boiling alcohols (methanol, ethanol, butanol), dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, acetone, methylethylketone, and the like.

Processes in dispersed media, include inverse suspension, direct suspension and aerosols, and the like. The continuous phase can be selected from apolar solvents such as toluene, benzene, hydrocarbon, halogenated solvents, supercritical carbon dioxide, and the like. With a direct suspension process, water can be used, although salt brines are also useful to “salt out” the amine and crosslinker reagents in a droplet separate phase, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,414,068.

The crosslinker to amine mole ratios control the extent of gel material formed as well as its crosslinking density. Too low a ratio may lead to incomplete crosslinking and formation of soluble oligomers, while too high a ratio may produce extremely tight network with little binding properties. The amine component can be either one or a combination of several amines, and the same applies to the crosslinker component. Optimization may be required for any new combination of amines and crosslinkers, since the functionality of either can influence the extent of gel formation and swelling characteristics. In some embodiments, crosslinker to amine molar ratios comprise between about 0.2 to about 10, preferably about 0.5 to about 5, and most preferably about 0.5 to about 2.

The crosslinking reaction is run in a batch or semi continuous mode. In the latter mode, either the amine or the crosslinker is added as the initial charge and the co-reactant is then metered up for a given period of time. In one embodiment, a soluble prepolymer is first prepared by adding the entire amine monomer component and then adding continuously a fraction of the crosslinker, forming a syrup. The syrup is then emulsified as droplets in an oil continuous phase and the remaining fraction of crosslinker is added to form crosslinked beads.When the crosslinker is an alkylhalide compound, a base can be used to scavenge the acid formed during the reaction. Inorganic or organic bases are suitable. NaOH is preferred. The base to crosslinker ratio is preferably between about 0.5 to about 2.

Polymers of the invention are crosslinked materials, meaning that they do not dissolve in solvents, and, at most, swell in solvents. The rate of swelling is expressed as the weight ratio of the swollen gel in a buffer to the dried crosslinked polymer. The rate of swelling in physiological isotonic buffer, representative of the milieu of use, i.e. the gastrointestinal tract, is typically in the range of about 1.2 to about 100, preferably about 2 to 20.

The polymers described herein exhibit phosphate binding properties. Phosphate binding capacity is a measure of the amount of phosphate ion a phosphate binder can bind in a given solution. For example, binding capacities of phosphate binders can be measured in vitro, e.g., in water or in saline solution, or in vivo, e.g., from phosphate urinary excretion, or ex vivo, for example using aspirate liquids, e.g., chyme obtained from lab animals, patients or volunteers. Measurements can be made in a solution containing only phosphate ion, or at least no other competing solutes that compete with phosphate ions for binding to the polymer resin. In these cases, a non interfering buffer would be used. Alternatively, measurements can be made in the presence of other competing solutes, e.g., other ions or metabolites, that compete with phosphate ions (the target solute) for binding to the resin.

Phosphate binding capacity for a polymer can be calculated as V*(C_(start)−C_(eq))/P, expressed in mmol/gr, where V is the fixed volume of the solution used, in L; C_(start) is the initial phosphate ion concentration of the solution in mM; C_(eq) is the equilibrium phosphate ion concentration in the solution in mM, after a weight P, in grams, of polymer is added and equilibration allowed.

The phosphate binding capacity can range from about 0.5 mmol/gr to about 10 mmol/gr, preferably from about 2.5 mmol/gr to about 8 mmol /gr, and even more preferably from about 3 mmol/gr to about 6 mmol/gr. Several techniques are known in the art to determine the phosphate binding capacity. Examples of suitable techniques are described in the Examples section below.

Amines that may be used in the present invention are not limited to, but are typically small amines that serve as monomers or parts of monomeric units for the polymerization reactions. Examples of amines that are suitable for synthesis of the polymers of the present invention include, but are not limited to, the amines shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 MW Label Type Structure (g/mol) B-SM-20-TeA Tetramine

316.54 B-SM-22-DA Diamine

61.1 B-SM-23-DA Diamine

88.15 B-SM-24-DA Diamine

74.13 B-SM-25-DA Diamine

88.15 B-SM-26-DA Diamine

129.21 B-SM-27-DA Diamine

114.19 B-SM-28-DA Triamine

196.08 B-SM-29-DA Triamine

125.13 B-SM-31-DA Diamine

184.07 B-SM-32-DA Diamine

136.2

Crosslinking agents are typically compounds having at least two functional groups that are selected from a halogen group, carbonyl group, epoxy group, ester group, acid anhydride group, achid halide group, isocyanate group, vinyl group, and chloroformate group. The crosslinking agent may be attached to the carbon backbone or to the pendant nitrogen of the amine polymer. Examples of crosslinked that are suitable for synthesis of the polymers of the present invention include, but are not limited to, the crosslinkers shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Label Structure Mw X-EP-1

92.52 X-EP-2

174.19 X-EP-3

X-EP-4

302.37 X-EP-5

297.27 X-EP-6

277.32 X-EP-7

86.09 X-EP-8

202.25 X-Cl-1

184.41 X-Cl-2

175.06 X-Cl-3

112.99 X-Cl-4

178.49 X-Cl-5

240.99 X-Cl-6

127.01 X-AC-1

203.02 X-AC-2

203.02 X-AC-3

265.48 X-AC-4

154.98 X-AH-1

198.13 X-AH-2

X-AH-3

112.08 X-Mc-1

168.2 X-Mc-2

118.16 X-Mc-3

249.27 X-Mc-4 158.15 X-IC-1

168.19 X-IC-2

174.16 X-IC-3

188.18 X-IC-4

222.28 X-ME-1

86.09 X-ME-2

158.16 X-ME-3

146.14 X-ME-4

194.19 X-ME-5

234.2 X-ME-6

252.22 X-ME-7

194.19 X-ME-8

178.14 X-ME-9

108.53

Other aspects of the invention are a crosslinked amine polymer comprising an amine of formula VI

and methods of using the same; wherein each m, independently, is equal to or greater than 3 and the amine is crosslinked with a crosslinking agent. Core-Shell Compositions

One aspect of the invention is core-shell compositions comprising a polymeric core and shell. In some embodiments, the polymeric core comprises of the crosslinked polymers described herein. The shell material can be chemically anchored to the core material or physically coated. In the former case, the shell can be grown on the core component through chemical means, for example by: chemical grafting of shell polymer to the core using living polymerization from active sites anchored onto the core polymer; interfacial reaction, i.e., a chemical reaction located at the core particle surface, such as interfacial polycondensation; and using block copolymers as suspending agents during the core particle synthesis.

The interfacial reaction and use of block polymers are preferred techniques when chemical methods are used. In the interfacial reaction pathway, typically, the periphery of the core particle is chemically modified by reacting small molecules or macromolecules on the core interface. For example, an amine containing ion-binding core particle is reacted with a polymer containing amine reactive groups such as epoxy, isocyanate, activated esters, halide groups to form a crosslinked shell around the core.

In another embodiment, the shell is first prepared using interfacial polycondensation or solvent coacervation to produce capsules. The interior of the capsule is then filled up with core-forming precursors to build the core within the shell capsule.

In some embodiments, using the block copolymer approach, an amphiphilic block copolymer can be used as a suspending agent to form the core particle in an inverse or direct suspension particle forming process. When an inverse water-in-oil suspension process is used, then the block copolymer comprises a first block soluble in the continuous oil phase and another hydrophilic block contains functional groups that can react with the core polymer. When added to the aqueous phase, along with core-forming precursor, and the oil phase, the block copolymer locates to the water-in-oil interface and acts as a suspending agent. The hydrophilic block reacts with the core material, or co-reacts with the core-forming precursors. After the particles are isolated from the oil phase, the block copolymers form a thin shell covalently attached to the core surface. The chemical nature and length of the blocks can be varied to vary the permeation characteristics of the shell towards solutes of interest.

When the shell material is physically adsorbed on the core material, well known techniques of microencapsulation such as solvent coacervation, fluidized bed spray coater, or multiemulsion processes can be used. A preferred method of microencapsulation is the fluidized bed spray coater in the Wurster configuration. In yet another embodiment, the shell material is only acting temporarily by delaying the swelling of the core particle while in the mouth and esophagus, and optionally disintegrates in the stomach or duodenum. The shell is then selected in order to hinder the transport of water into the core particle, by creating a layer of high hydrophobicity and very low liquid water permeability.

In one embodiment the shell material is preferentially carrying negative charges while being in the milieu of use. Not being limited to one mechanism of action, it has been observed that negatively charged shell material coated on anion-binding beads enhance the binding of small inorganic ions with a low charge density (such as phosphate) over competing ions with greater valency or size. For example, it has been observed that crosslinked amine polymer core particles coated with a polyanionic shell have a higher binding capacity of phosphate ions as measured in synthetic GI environment. Competing anions such as citrate, bile acids and fatty acids among others, have a lesser relative affinity to the anion binding core possibly as a result of their limited permeability across the shell.

Preferred shell materials are polymers carrying negative charges in the pH range typically found in the intestine. Examples include, but are not limited to, polymers that have pendant acid groups such as carboxylic, sulfonic, hydrosulfonic, sulfamic, phosphoric, hydrophosphoric, phosphonic, hydrophosphonic, phosphoramidic, phenolic, boronic and a combination thereof. The polymer can be protonated or unprotonated; in the latter case the acidic anion can be neutralized with pharmaceutically acceptable cations such as Na, K, Li, Ca, Mg, and NH₄.

In another embodiment the polyanion can administered as a precursor that ultimately activates as a polyanion: for instance certain labile ester or anhydride forms of either polysulfonic or polycarboxylic acids are prone to hydrolysis in the acidic environment of the stomach and can convert to the active anions.

The shell polymers can be either linear, branched, hyperbranched, segmented (i.e. backbone polymer arranged in sequence of contiguous blocks of which at least one contains pendant acidic groups), comb-shaped, star-shaped or crosslinked in a network, fully and semi-interpenetrated network (IPN). The shell polymers are either random or blocky in composition and either covalently or physically attached to the core material. Examples of such acidic shell polymers include, but are not limited to poly(acrylic acid), poly(styrene sulfonate), carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, carrageenan, alginate, or poly(methacrylic acid) esters, acrylic/maleic acid copolymers, styrene/maleic acid polymers, itaconic acid/acrylic copolymers, and fumaric/acrylic acid copolymers.

In some preferred embodiments the shell polymers are selected amongst pharmaceutically acceptable polymers such as Eudragit L100-55 and Eudragit L100 (methacrylic acid esters, Degussa/Roehm), Carbopol 934 (polyacrylic acid, Noveon), C-A-P NF (cellulose acetate phthalate—Eastman), Eastacryl (methacrylic acid esters—Eastman), Carrageenan and Alginate (FMC Biopolymer), Anycoat—P (Samsung Fine Chemicals—HPMC Phthalate), or Aqualon (carboxymethyl cellulose—Hercules), methylvinylether/maleic acid copolymers (Gantrez), and styrene/maleic acid (SMA).

The shell can be coated by a variety of methods. In one embodiment, the shell materials are added in the drug formulation step as an active excipient; for example, the shell material can be included in a solid formulation as a powder, which is physically blended with the phosphate-binding polymer and other excipients, optionally granulated, and compressed to form a tablet. Thus, in some embodiments, the shell material need not cover the core material in the drug product. For example, it has been found advantageous to add the acidic shell polymer together with the anion binding core polymer formulated in the shape of a tablet, capsule, gel, liquid, etc, wafer, extrudates and the shell polymer can then dissolve and distribute itself uniformly as a shell coating around the core while the drug product equilibrates in the mouth, esophagus or ultimately in the site of action, i.e. the GI tract. Not intending to be bound to one theory, it is hypothesized that the positively charged anion binding material has a strong affinity to the polyanionic shell material and thus tends to spontaneously form a core-shell structure by charge neutralization.

In some embodiments, the shell is a thin layer of shell polymer. The layer can be a molecular layer of polyanion on the core particle surface. The weight to core ratio can be between about 0.0001% to about 30%, preferably comprised between about 0.1% to about 5%

Preferably the shell polymers low minimum in molecular weight such that they do not freely permeate within the core pore volume nor elute from the core surface. Preferably the molecular weight of the shell acidic polymer Mw is about 1000 g/mole, more preferably about 5000 g/mole, and even more preferably about 20,000 g/mole

The anionic charge density of the shell material (as prevailing in the milieu of use) is typically comprised between 0.5 mEq/gr to 22 mEq/gr, preferably 2 mEq/gr to 15 mEq/gr. If a coating process is used to form the shell on the polymer particles as part of the manufacture of the dosage form, then procedures known from those skilled-in-the-art in the pharmaceutical industry are applicable. In a preferred embodiment, the shell is formed in a fluidized bed coater (Wurster coater). In an alternate embodiment, the shell is formed through controlled precipitation or coascervation, wherein the polymer particles are suspended in a polymer solution, and the solvent properties are changed in such a way as to induce the polymer to precipitate onto or coat the polymer particles.

Suitable coating processes include the procedures typically used in the pharmaceutical industry. Typically, selection of the coating method is dictated by a number of parameters, that include, but are not limited to the form of the shell material (bulk, solution, emulsion, suspension, melt) as well as the shape and nature of the core material (spherical beads, irregular shaped, etc.), and the amount of shell deposited.

Treatment of Phosphate Imbalance Disorders and Renal Diseases

The term “phosphate imbalance disorder” as used herein refers to conditions in which the level of phosphorus present in the body is abnormal. One example of a phosphate imbalance disorder includes hyperphosphatemia. The term “hyperphosphatemia” as used herein refers to a condition in which the element phosphorus is present in the body at an elevated level. Typically, a patient is often diagnosed with hyperphosphatemia if the blood phosphate level is, for example, above about 4.5 milligrams per deciliter of blood and/or glomerular filtration rate is reduced to, for example, more than about 20%.

Other diseases that can be treated with the methods, compositions, and kits of the present invention include hypocalcemia, hyperparathyroidism, depressed renal synthesis of calcitriol, tetany due to hypocalcemia, renal insufficiency, and ectopic calcification in soft tissues including calcifications in joints, lungs, kidney, conjuctiva, and myocardial tissues. Also, the present invention can be used to treat ESRD and dialysis patients, including prophylactic treatment of any of the above.

Also, the polymers described herein can be used as an adjunct to other therapies e.g. those employing dietary control of phosphorus intake, dialysis inorganic metal salts and/or other polymer resins.

The compositions of the present invention are also useful in removing chloride, bicarbonate, iron ions, oxalate, and bile acids from the gastrointestinal tract. Polymers removing oxalate ions find use in the treatment of oxalate imbalance disorders, such as such as oxalosis or hyperoxaluria that increases the risk of kidney stone formation. Polymers removing chloride ions find use in treating acidosis, heartburn, acid reflux disease, sour stomach or gastritis, for example. In some embodiments, the compositions of the present invention are useful for removing fatty acids, bilirubin, and related compounds. Some embodiments may also bind and remove high molecular weight molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins or cell debris.

The present invention provides methods, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits for the treatment of animal. The term “animal” or “animal subject” as used herein includes humans as well as other mammals. One embodiment of the invention is a method of removing phosphate from the gastrointestinal tract of an animal by administering an effective amount of at least one of the crosslinked amine polymers described herein.

The term “treating” and its grammatical equivalents as used herein includes achieving a therapeutic benefit and/or a prophylactic benefit. By therapeutic benefit is meant eradication, amelioration, or prevention of the underlying disorder being treated. For example, in a hyperphosphatemia patient, therapeutic benefit includes eradication or amelioration of the underlying hyperphosphatemia. Also, a therapeutic benefit is achieved with the eradication, amelioration, or prevention of one or more of the physiological symptoms associated with the underlying disorder such that an improvement is observed in the patient, notwithstanding that the patient may still be afflicted with the underlying disorder. For example, administration of crosslinked amine polymers, described herein, to a patient suffering from renal insufficiency and/or hyperphosphatemia provides therapeutic benefit not only when the patient's serum phosphate level is decreased, but also when an improvement is observed in the patient with respect to other disorders that accompany renal failure and/or hyperphosphatemia like ectopic calcification and renal osteodistrophy. For prophylactic benefit, for example, the crosslinked amine polymers may be administered to a patient at risk of developing hyperphosphatemia or to a patient reporting one or more of the physiological symptoms of hyperphosphatemia, even though a diagnosis of hyperphosphatemia may not have been made.

The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention include compositions wherein the crosslinked amine polymers are present in an effective amount, i.e., in an amount effective to achieve therapeutic and/or prophylactic benefit. The actual amount effective for a particular application will depend on the patient (e.g. age, weight) the condition being treated; and the route of administration. Determination of an effective amount is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art, especially in light of the disclosure herein.

The effective amount for use in humans can be determined from animal models. For example, a dose for humans can be formulated to achieve circulating and/or gastrointestinal concentrations that have been found to be effective in animals.

The dosages of the crosslinked amine polymers in animals will depend on the disease being, treated, the route of administration, and the physical characteristics of the animal being treated. In some embodiments, the dosage levels of the crosslinked amine polymers for therapeutic and/or prophylactic uses can be from about 1 gm/day to about 30 gm/day. It is preferred that these polymers are administered along with meals. The polymers may be administered one time a day, two times a day, or three times a day. The preferred dosage range is from about 2 gm/day to about 20 gm/day and an even preferred dosage range is from about 3 gm/day to about 7 gm/day. The dose of the polymers described herein can be less than about 50 gm/day, preferably less than about 40 gm/day, more preferably less than about gm/day, even more preferably less than about 30 gm/day, even more preferred less than about 20 gm/day, and most preferred is less than about 10 gm/day.

Preferably, the crosslinked amine polymers used for therapeutic and/or prophylactic benefits can be administered alone or in the form of a pharmaceutical composition. The pharmaceutical compositions comprise the crosslinked amine polymers, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, diluents or excipients, and optionally additional therapeutic agents. For example, the crosslinked amine polymers of the present invention may be co-administered with other active pharmaceutical agents depending on the condition being treated. Examples of pharmaceutical agents that maybe co-administered include, but are not limited to, proton pump inhibitors, calcimimetics (for example, cinacalcet), Vitamin D and analogs thereof, and phosphate binders. Examples of suitable phosphate binders include, but are not limited to, aluminum carbonate, calcium carbonate, calcium acetate (PhosLo), lanthanum carbonate (Fosrenol), and Renagel. This co-administration can include simultaneous administration of the two agents in the same dosage form, simultaneous administration in separate dosage forms, and separate administration. For example, for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia, the crosslinked amine polymers may be co-administered with calcium salts which are used to treat hypoclacemia resulting from hyperphosphatemia. The calcium salt and the polymer can be formulated together in the same dosage form and administered simultaneously. Alternatively, the calcium salt and the polymer can be simultaneously administered, wherein both the agent are presenting separate formulation. In another alternative, the calcium salt can be administered just followed by the polymer, or vice versa. In the separate administration protocol, the polymer and calcium slat may be administered a few minutes apart, or a few hours apart, or a few days apart.

The polymer can be administered by injection, topically, orally, transdermally, or rectally. Preferably, the polymer or the pharmaceutical composition comprising the polymer is administered orally. The oral form in which the polymer is administered can include powder, tablet, capsule, solution, or emulsion. The effective amount can be administered in a single dose or in a series of doses separated by appropriate time intervals, such as hours.

Pharmaceutical compositions for use in accordance with the present invention may be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers comprising excipients and auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically. Proper formulation is dependent upon the route of administration chosen. Suitable techniques for preparing pharmaceutical compositions of the amines are well known in the art.

In some embodiments the polymers of the invention are provided as pharmaceutical compositions in the form of chewable tablets. In addition to the active ingredient, the following types of excipients are commonly used: a sweetening agent to provide the necessary palatability, plus a binder where the former is inadequate in providing sufficient tablet hardness; a lubricant to minimize frictional effects at the die wall and facilitate tablet ejection; and, in some formulations a small amount of a disintegrant is added to facilitate mastication. In general excipient levels in currently-available chewable tablets are on the order of 3-5 fold of active ingredient(s) whereas sweetening agents make up the bulk of the inactive ingredients.

The present invention provides chewable tablets that contain a polymer or polymers of the invention and one or more pharmaceutical excipients suitable for formulation of a chewable tablet. The polymer used in chewable tablets of the invention preferably has a swelling ratio while transiting the oral cavity and in the esophagus of less than about 5, preferably less than about 4, more preferably less than about 3, more preferably less than 2.5, and most preferably less than about 2. In some embodiments the polymer is an anion-binding polymer such as a phosphate- or oxalate binding polymer; in a preferred embodiment, the polymer is a phosphate-binding polymer. The tablet comprising the polymer, combined with suitable excipients, provides acceptable organoleptic properties such as mouthfeel, taste, and tooth packing, and at the same time does not pose a risk to obstruct the esophagus after chewing and contact with saliva.

In some aspects of the invention, the polymer(s) provide mechanical and thermal properties that are usually performed by excipients, thus decreasing the amount of such excipients required for the formulation. In some embodiments the active ingredient (e.g., polymer, preferably an anion-binding polymer) constitutes over about 30%, more preferably over about 40%, even more preferably over about 50%, and most preferably more than about 60% by weight of the chewable tablet, the remainder comprising suitable excipient(s). In some embodiments the polymer, e.g., an anion-binding polymer, comprises about 0.6 gm to about 2.0 gm of the total weight of the tablet, preferably about 0.8 gm to about 1.6 gm. In some embodiments the polymer, e.g., an anion-binding polymer, comprises more than about 0.8 gm of the tablet, preferably more than about 1.2 gm of the tablet, and most preferably more than about 1.6 gm of the tablet. The polymer is produced to have appropriate strength/friability and particle size to provide the same qualities for which excipients are often used, e.g., proper hardness, good mouth feel, compressibility, and the like. Particle size for polymers used in chewable tablets of the invention is less than about 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, or 20 microns mean diameter. In preferred embodiments, the particle size is less than about 80, more preferably less than about 60, and most preferably less than about 40 microns.

Pharmaceutical excipients useful in the chewable tablets of the invention include a binder, such as microcrystalline cellulose, colloidal silica and combinations thereof (Prosolv 90), carbopol, providone and xanthan gum; a flavoring agent, such as sucrose, mannitol, xylitol, maltodextrin, fructose, or sorbitol; a lubricant, such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid, sodium stearyl fumurate and vegetable based fatty acids; and, optionally, a disintegrant, such as croscarmellose sodium, gellan gum, low-substituted hydroxypropyl ether of cellulose, sodium starch glycolate. Other additives may include plasticizers, pigments, talc, and the like. Such additives and other suitable ingredients are well-known in the art; see, e.g., Gennaro A R (ed), Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 20th Edition.

In some embodiments the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition formulated as a chewable tablet, comprising a polymer described herein and a suitable excipient. In some embodiments the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition formulated as a chewable tablet, comprising a polymer described herein, a filler, and a lubricant. In some embodiments the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition formulated as a chewable tablet, comprising a polymer described herein, a filler, and a lubricant, wherein the filler is chosen from the group consisting of sucrose, mannitol, xylitol, maltodextrin, fructose, and sorbitol, and wherein the lubricant is a magnesium fatty acid salt, such as magnesium stearate.

The tablet may be of any size and shape compatible with chewability and mouth disintegration, preferably of a cylindrical shape, with a diameter of about 10 mm to about 40 mm and a height of about 2 mm to about 10 mm, most preferably a diameter of about 22 mm and a height of about 6 mm.

In one embodiment, the polymer is pre-formulated with a high Tg/high melting point low molecular weight excipient such as mannitol, sorbose, sucrose in order to form a solid solution wherein the polymer and the excipient are intimately mixed. Method of mixing such as extrusion, spray-drying, chill drying, lyophilization, or wet granulation are useful. Indication of the level of mixing is given by known physical methods such as differential scanning calorimetry or dynamic mechanical analysis.

Methods of making chewable tablets containing pharmaceutical ingredients, including polymers, are known in the art. See, e.g., European Patent Application No. EP373852A2 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,510, and Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

In some embodiments the polymers of the invention are provided as pharmaceutical compositions in the form of liquid formulations. In some embodiments the pharmaceutical composition contains an ion-binding polymer dispersed in a suitable liquid excipient. Suitable liquid excipients are known in the art; see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences.

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

It will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that many changes and modification can be made to the disclosures presented herein without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Libraries of Crosslinked Polymers Formed in a Bulk Solution Process and Measurement for Phosphate Binding Capacity

Creation of Polymer Libraries

The following five examples each comprise a library comprising up to 24 crosslinked polymers. Polymers were prepared in batch reactors arranged in a 4×6 array format. Each reactor had either a 350 microliters or a 3 ml volume, was magnetically stirred, and temperature-controlled. In a typical procedure, amine, crosslinkers, solvents and optionally base were dispensed robotically in each reactor, optionally under agitation. The reactors were then sealed and heated up to the indicated temperature for 15 hours. The reactor array was then dismounted and plugs of crosslinked polymers transferred in glass vials, ground, washed repeatedly with de-ionized water, and lyophilized. The five libraries are identified below in Table 3 along with the corresponding reaction conditions used in their creation.

TABLE 3 Library Reaction temperature Reactor volume Example identification (° C.) (microliters) 1 100275 85 350 2 100277 60 350 3 100279 80 350 4 100353 80 350 5 100384 80 3000 Phosphate Binding Capacity Measurements in a Non Interfering Buffer

Binding capacities for phosphate ion were also determined for each of the polymers of the libraries. An aliquot of dried resin of weight P(gr), was mixed under gentle agitation with a fixed volume ,V(L), of a phosphate ion solution of concentration C_(start)(mM) buffered at pH 6.5. The solution can be referred to as a non-interfering buffer as it contains no other competing solutes that compete with the phosphate ions for binding to the polymer resin. After resin equilibration, the solution was decanted by centrifugation and the supernatant analyzed for residual phosphate concentration by ionic chromatography, C_(eq)(mM). The binding capacity was calculated as V*(C_(start)−C_(eq))/P, expressed in mmol/gr as indicated in the tables for the corresponding polymers.

Results

Tables 4-8 provide materials and the quantities used in forming the polymers of each of the 5 libraries, along with the measured phosphate binding capacities in a non interfering buffer for the polymers formed. Entries correspond to the weight of chemicals used in each reaction well in mg, along with the phosphate binding capacity of the polymer gel obtained (blank indicates no crosslinked gel was formed in that particular reaction).

TABLE 4 Library: Plate3 (ID: 100275) Unit: mg Phos- phate binding B-SM- (mmol/ Row Col water 22-DA X—Cl-3 NaOH DMSO gr) 1 1 128.51 67.74 51.63 9.14 0.00 1 2 130.70 57.94 61.82 10.94 0.00 1 3 132.33 50.61 69.43 12.29 0.00 1 4 133.59 44.93 75.33 13.33 0.00 3.042 1 5 134.60 40.39 80.04 14.17 0.00 0 1 6 135.43 36.69 83.89 14.85 0.00 0 2 1 136.42 32.26 88.50 15.66 0.00 3.703 2 2 137.05 29.41 91.45 16.19 0.00 3.624 2 3 137.58 27.03 93.93 16.63 0.00 2.858 2 4 138.03 25.00 96.03 17.00 0.00 2.566 2 5 138.42 23.26 97.84 17.32 0.00 2.761 2 6 138.76 21.74 99.42 17.60 0.00 2.82 3 1 132.04 64.98 49.52 17.53 34.60 3 2 134.77 55.13 58.82 20.82 47.26 3 3 136.79 47.87 65.67 23.25 57.22 3 4 138.34 42.30 70.93 25.11 65.27 3.087 3 5 139.57 37.90 75.09 26.58 71.91 2.946 3 6 140.56 34.32 78.47 27.78 77.48 2.535 4 1 141.75 30.06 82.48 29.20 79.73 2.674 4 2 142.50 27.35 85.04 30.11 90.45 3.038 4 3 143.13 25.09 87.18 30.86 97.98 2.895 4 4 143.66 23.17 88.99 31.50 103.56 2.571 4 5 144.12 21.52 90.54 32.05 107.86 2.636 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.374

TABLE 5 Library: Plate1 (ID: 100277) Unit: mg Phosphate B-SM- binding Row Col water 20-TeA X-EP-1 X-EP-4 (mmol/gr) 1 1 123.69 110.75 12.95 0.00 DMF 1 2 124.02 107.66 16.36 0.00 0.00 1 3 124.33 104.74 19.59 0.00 0.00 1 4 124.63 101.98 22.65 0.00 0.00 1 5 124.91 99.35 25.55 0.00 0.00 4.183 1 6 125.17 96.86 28.31 0.00 0.00 4.237 2 1 125.59 92.98 32.61 0.00 0.00 4.631 2 2 125.89 90.08 35.81 0.00 0.00 4.594 2 3 126.18 87.37 38.81 0.00 0.00 4.667 2 4 126.45 84.81 41.64 0.00 0.00 4.586 2 5 126.71 82.40 44.31 0.00 0.00 4.535 2 6 126.95 80.12 46.83 0.00 0.00 4.311 3 1 0.00 181.12 0.00 34.60 0.00 3 2 0.00 159.58 0.00 47.26 104.77 3 3 0.00 142.63 0.00 57.22 118.23 3.112 3 4 0.00 128.93 0.00 65.27 128.56 2.991 3 5 0.00 117.63 0.00 71.91 136.73 2.798 3 6 0.00 108.15 0.00 77.48 143.35 3.271 4 1 0.00 104.33 0.00 79.73 148.83 3.258 4 2 0.00 86.08 0.00 90.45 156.12 3.062 4 3 0.00 73.27 0.00 97.98 160.76 2.176 4 4 0.00 63.77 0.00 103.56 164.62 2.228 4 5 0.00 56.46 0.00 107.86 167.88 2.407 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 170.67 5.224 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

TABLE 6 Library: Plate3 (ID: 100279) Unit: mg Phosphate B-SM- binding Row Col water 20-TeA X—Cl-3 X—Cl-2 (mmol/gr) 1 1 123.95 108.47 15.49 0.00 1 2 124.34 104.88 19.47 0.00 1 3 124.70 101.51 23.19 0.00 1 4 125.04 98.36 26.68 0.00 1 5 125.36 95.40 29.97 0.00 3.958 1 6 125.66 92.61 33.06 0.00 4.309 2 1 126.13 88.30 37.82 0.00 4.417 2 2 126.47 85.14 41.33 0.00 4.424 2 3 126.78 82.19 44.59 0.00 4.392 2 4 127.08 79.44 47.64 0.00 4.407 2 5 127.36 76.87 50.49 0.00 4.14 2 6 127.62 74.46 53.16 0.00 4.314 3 1 0.00 118.41 0.00 26.19 3 2 0.00 102.78 0.00 29.56 3 3 0.00 90.80 0.00 32.14 3 4 0.00 81.32 0.00 34.18 3 5 0.00 73.64 0.00 35.84 3 6 0.00 67.28 0.00 37.21 2.237 4 1 0.00 58.81 0.00 39.03 2.403 4 2 0.00 53.43 0.00 40.19 2.704 4 3 0.00 48.96 0.00 41.15 2.614 4 4 0.00 45.17 0.00 41.97 1.714 4 5 0.00 41.93 0.00 42.67 2.294 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.295

TABLE 7 Library: Plate1 (ID: 100353) Unit: mg Phosphate B-SM- B-SM- binding Row Col 20-TeA 22-DA X—Cl-3 NaOH (mmol/gr) 1 1 142.77 11.14 33.97 24.05 1 2 117.71 9.19 44.82 31.73 1 3 100.13 7.82 52.42 37.12 5.838 1 4 87.12 6.80 58.05 41.10 5.38 1 5 77.10 6.02 62.39 44.17 5.549 1 6 69.15 5.40 65.83 46.61 5.826 2 1 64.71 5.05 67.75 47.97 5.452 2 2 57.99 4.53 70.66 50.03 3.358 2 3 52.54 4.10 73.01 51.70 3.45 2 4 48.02 3.75 74.97 53.08 4.27 2 5 44.22 3.45 76.61 54.24 3.469 2 6 40.98 3.20 78.02 55.24 4.058 3 1 111.71 26.16 39.87 28.23 3 2 89.37 20.93 51.04 36.14 3 3 74.48 17.44 58.49 41.41 5.154 3 4 63.85 14.95 63.81 45.18 5.784 3 5 55.87 13.08 67.80 48.01 5.596 3 6 49.66 11.63 70.91 50.20 5.287 4 1 46.24 10.83 72.62 51.42 5.261 4 2 41.13 9.63 75.17 53.23 4.743 4 3 37.04 8.67 77.22 54.67 4.076 4 4 33.69 7.89 78.90 55.86 3.924 4 5 30.90 7.24 80.29 56.85 2.896 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.287

TABLE 8 Library: Plate1 (ID: 100384) Unit: mg Phosphate B-SM- binding Row Col X—Cl-3 22-DA water NaOH (mmol/gr) 1 1 643.88 422.44 1752.36 227.94 1 2 692.40 378.56 1743.80 245.12 4.362 1 3 731.79 342.94 1736.85 259.06 4.09 1 4 764.40 313.44 1731.10 270.61 3.198 1 5 791.85 288.62 1726.26 280.33 2.951 1 6 815.27 267.44 1722.12 288.62 2.005 2 1 643.88 422.44 1752.36 227.94 2 2 692.40 378.56 1743.80 245.12 2 3 731.79 342.94 1736.85 259.06 2 4 764.40 313.44 1731.10 270.61 4.794 2 5 791.85 288.62 1726.26 280.33 2 6 815.27 267.44 1722.12 288.62 4.332 3 1 643.88 422.44 1752.36 227.94 3 2 692.40 378.56 1743.80 245.12 3 3 731.79 342.94 1736.85 259.06 3 4 764.40 313.44 1731.10 270.61 4.511 3 5 791.85 288.62 1726.26 280.33 5.086 3 6 815.27 267.44 1722.12 288.62 4.61 4 1 643.88 422.44 1752.36 227.94 4 2 692.40 378.56 1743.80 245.12 4 3 731.79 342.94 1736.85 259.06 4 4 764.40 313.44 1731.10 270.61 4 5 791.85 288.62 1726.26 280.33 4.816 4 6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.17

Example 2 Synthesis of 1,3-Diaminopropane/epichlorohydrin Crosslinked Beads Formed in a Suspension Process

A 3liter reaction vessel was used, comprising a three necked round bottom flask with four side baffles. The reaction flask was equipped with an oil heating bath, cold-water reflux condenser and mechanical stirrer with a 3 inch propeller. To this reaction vessel was introduced a solution of 1,3-diaminopropane (90.2 g, 1.21 mole) dissolved in 90.2 g of water, surfactant (branched dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid sodium salt, 6.4 g dissolved in 100 g of water) and 1 Kg of toluene. This initial charge was agitated to 600 rpm for 2 minutes and then lowered to 300 rpm for 10 minutes before the epichlorohydrin was added. The 300 rpm speed was maintained through out the remainder of the experiment. The solution was heated to 80° C. and also maintained at this temperature through out the experiment.

In a separate vessel, a 40 mass % solution of epichlorohydrin in toluene was prepared. Using a syringe pump, 1.2 equivalents of epichlorohydrin (134.7 g, (1.45 mole)) were added to the initial charge reaction vessel over a 3 hour period. The reaction was continued for an additional 2 hours before adding 0.75 equivalents of sodium hydroxide (36.5 g (0.91 mole)) in a 40 weight % solution. The sodium hydroxide solution was added to the reaction via a syringe pump over a 2.5 hour period. The reaction was maintained at 80° C. for a further 8 hours.

After this time, beads that formed were purified by removing the toluene, washing with 1000 ml of acetone, followed by methanol, a 20% solution of NaOH (to remove the surfactant), and then twice more with deionized water. The beads were freeze dried for 3 days to give a fine white powder weighing at 160 g (92% yield) and having a mean diameter of 93 μm.

Example 3 Synthesis of 1,3-Diaminopropane/1,3-Dichloropropane Crosslinked Polymer

Using water as solvent, 1000 mg of B-SM-22-DA was mixed with 1524 mg of X—Cl-3 and 2524 mg of water in a 20 mL scintillation vial. The reaction was subjected to magnetic stirring and maintained at a temperature of 80° C. overnight, followed by a temperature of 90° C. for two additional hours. A 34 wt. % of reaction mixture (1716mg) was purified by 3 washing in water/centrifugation steps and gave 144.7 mg of powder of the polymer of the present example.

Example 4 Synthesis of 1,3-Diaminopropane/1,3-Dichloropropane Crosslinked Polymer

Using water as a solvent, 2000 mg of B-SM-22-DA was mixed with 3048 mg of X—Cl-3 and 5048 mg of water in a 20 mL scintillation vial. The reaction was subjected to magnetic stirring and maintained at a temperature of 80° C. overnight.

3597 mg of NaOH solution at 30 wt. % in water was added after 3 hours of reaction to scavenge the acid formed during the reaction as the crosslinker used was an alkylhalide. A 20.3 wt. % of reaction mixture (2773.5 mg) was purified by 3 washing in water/centrifugation steps and gave 591.3 mg of powder of the polymer of the present example.

Example 5 Synthesis of Crosslinked Beads Prepared with 1,3-Diaminopropane/1,3-Dichloropropane Using a Prepolymer Approach

Preparation of Pre-polymer

The reaction vessel used was a 250 mL, two necked round bottom flask, equipped with a cold-water reflux condenser, magnetic stirrer, and run over an argon atmosphere. To this reaction vessel is introduced a solution of 1 ,3-diaminopropane (31.15 g, 0.42 mole) dissolved in 30.15 g of water. This initial charge is agitated to 300 rpm. The solution was heated to 80° C. and maintained at this temperature through out the experiment. Using a syringe pump, 1 equivalent (47.47 g, 40.0 mL, 0.42 mol) of 1,3 dichloropropane (Aldrich 99%) was added over a 2-hour period. The reaction was continued for an additional 2 hours before adding 10 mole % (with respect to 1,3-diaminopropane) of sodium hydroxide (1.68 g (0.042 mole) of NaOH and made up to a 40 weight % solution of water). The sodium hydroxide solution was added to the reaction via pipette over a 2 minute period. The reaction was maintained at 80° C. for a further 4 hours. The solution at 80° C. is viscous and upon cooling to 25° C. becomes a solid plug that is readily soluble in water.

Purification

To the solid plug water is added, washing with 200 ml of water and 200 mL of MeOH. This is then added to a 1 L beaker that contains a 50/50 solution of MeOH/Isopropyl alcohol. The white polymer precipitates. After placing the suspension into a centrifuge, the supernatant liquid is removed. This process is repeated using isopropyl alcohol a further 2 times. The white precipitate is then dried under reduced pressure at room temperature to remove the isopropyl alcohol. Weight of polymer isolated: Mn (GPC relative to polyethylenimine standard)˜600.

Synthesis of Crosslinked Particles

The white pre-polymer (8.7 g) was placed into a flask with 1.3 g of branched dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid sodium salt (30 wgt % solution in water) and 34.8 g of toluene. This gave a 20 weight % solution of polymer suspended in toluene. The polymer was ground to micron sized particles with a mechanical grinder (Brand: IKA. Model: Ultra-Turax T8). 2.2 g of the resulting suspension was loaded into a 10 mL reaction flask equipped with a heater, a mechanical stirrer, and a syringe pump. The reaction flask was charged with an additional 3779 mg of toluene. The flask was heated to 80° C. and the stirrer was turned on (500 RPM). After 3 hours of stirring at this temperature, 112.2 mg (0.0012 mole) of epichlorohydrin was added over a 1.5-hour period. The reaction was allowed to proceed a further 2 hours before the addition of 224.4 mg (0.0056 mol) of sodium hydroxide (in a 40 weight % solution of water), which was delivered over a 2 hour period. The reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature and the stirring was stopped. The beads were purified by removing the toluene, washing with methanol, and then a 20% solution of NaOH (to remove the surfactant) and twice more with deionized water. The beads were freeze dried for 3 days to give a fine white powder. The binding capacity measured in a non interfering buffer was 3.85 mmol/gr.

Example 6 Synthesis of Micron Sized, Crosslinked Beads with N,N′ (Tetra-3-aminopropyl) 1,4 Diaminobutane/epichlorohydrin Via Inverse Suspension.

Materials: Molecular Molecular Name Formula Weight CAS Number Purity N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(3-aminopropyl)-1,4-butanediamine

316.53 120239-63-6 C₁₆H₄₀N₆ Epichlorohydrin;1-Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane(±)-2-(Chloromethyl)oxirane

92.52 106-89-8 >99% C₃H₅ClO Toluene C₇H₈ 92.14 108-88-3 Dodecylbenzenesulfonicacid sodium saltBranched 30% in water.

348.48 25155-30-0 Method

The following stock solution was prepared: 2 molar equivalents of concentrated HCl was added to 1 molar equivalent of N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(3-aminopropyl)-1,4-butanediamine over a 2 hour period. Water and surfactant (branched dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid sodium salt, 30 weight % in water) was then added to the solution such that the resulting solution achieved the following weight % composition: N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(3-aminopropyl)-1,4-butanediamine 41.8 weight %, HCl 9.4 weight %, water 41.1 weight %, surfactant (30 weight % in water) 7.7 weight %.

The following is a selected example of a reaction that was conducted in a 3 liter, three necked round bottom flask with four side baffles, equipped with an oil heating bath, a thermometer to measure the internal reaction temperature, a cold-water reflux condenser and mechanical stirrer with a 1 inch propeller. To this reaction vessel is introduced 362.3 g of the prepared stock solution and 1086 g of toluene. This initial charge is agitated to 600 rpm for 2 minutes and then lowered to 240 rpm for 10 minutes before the first addition of epichlorohydrin. This speed is maintained through out the experiment. The solution was heated to 80° C. and maintained at this temperature through out the experiment. The reaction is purged for 20 minutes with nitrogen before the addition of epichlorohydrin and as the reaction proceeds, a blanket of nitrogen is maintained.

Into a separate vessel, a 40 mass % stock solution of epichlorohydrin in toluene was prepared. Using a syringe pump, 2.5 molar equivalents of epichlorohydrin, in the stock solution was added over a 90 minute period. Six hours after adding the epichlorohydrin, the reaction was finished by the removal of heat and is allowed to cool with a nitrogen purge.

The beads were purified by removing the toluene, washing with methanol and then a 20% solution of NaOH (to remove the surfactant) till a pH of 11 was achieved. The beads were washed with methanol and then allowed to drain. The beads were then placed into a soxhlet apparatus with a nitrogen purge and washed with deionized water for 12 hours. The beads were then placed into a pan, frozen and freeze dried (using a lyophilizer) for 3 days to give a fine white powder.

Example 7 Binding Capacity in a Digestion Model

This procedure was designed to mimic the conditions of use of a phosphate binding polymer in a GI tract and measure the binding characteristics of the polymer for phosphate (target solute) in the presence of other metabolites (competing solutes). A liquid meal was prepared and the polymers of each of Examples 2, 3, or 4 were added to the meal composition and the meal was artificially digested in the presence of pepsin and pancreatic juice. The sequence of addition of enzymes and the pH profile were controlled so that the digestion process was simulated down to the jejunum level. An aliquot of the digested meal mimic was centrifuged and the supernatant assayed for phosphate. The phosphate binding assay was like the one described above with non-interfering buffer, except that liquid of the meal digest mimic was used. The binding capacity in the meal digest was calculated as indicated above and results are reported in Table 9 below.

TABLE 9 Phosphate binding in a Phosphate binding non interfering buffer in a meal digest C_(start) Capacity C_(start) Capacity Example (mM) C_(eq)(mM) (mmol/gr) (mM) C_(eq)(mM) (mmol/gr) 2 20.1 10.56 3.81 8.01 5.31 1.08 3 20.1 12.27 3.13 8.01 5.83 0.74 4 20.1 9.32 4.31 8.01 3.87 1.66

Example 8 Coating of Micron Sized Polyamine Bead with a Water Soluble Shell

The reactions were conducted in a 24-well polymerization reactor that used 4 mL vials+stir bars. A commercially available liquid handling robot driven by Symyx Technologies software was used to deliver the,reagents to the vials. A typical reaction procedure is as follows: into each 4 mL vial is placed 0.3 g of the polyamine bead material of Example 6. Water is added to the beads. The stirrers are turned on. A 20 weight % solution of Polyacrylic acid in water was prepared. The desired amount of poly acrylic acid was added using the dispensing robot to the 4 mL vials which were at room temperature. The reactions were conducted such that the polyamine type beads represent 12 weight % of the water and Polyacrylic acid added. After addition of the polyacrylic acid to the water bead solution, the reaction plate was heated to 85° C. for 12 hours. The beads in the 4 mL vials were then transferred to an 8 mL test tube and washed with ˜6 mL deionized water to remove excess polyacrylic acid. The water wash procedure was repeated another 3 times. The beads were freeze dried for 3 days to give a fine white powder. The samples were characterized for swelling, phosphate binding and citrate binding in a synthetic GI mimic as described in Example 7.

The results are summarized in Tables 10-13.

TABLE 10 MW Label Name CAS # (g/mol) Shell-A-4 Poly(acrylic acid co 3000 maleic acid) Shell-A-5 PolyAcrylic Acid 323667 5,000 Shell-A-6 PolyAcrylic Acid 323667 50,000 Shell-A-7 PolyAcrylic Acid 323667 90,000 Shell-A-8 PolyAcrylic Acid 323667 250,000

TABLE 11 First exploration of Poly(acrylic acid-co maleic acid) + Poly-amine bead. Phosphate Sample Polyamine BC Citrate BC Swelling No. bead ID Shell ID Shell wt % (mmol/g) (mmol/g) (gH2O/gGel) 1.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.05 2.03 0.05 2.63 2.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.13 1.99 0.05 2.54 3.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.21 1.99 0.05 2.79 4.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.29 1.95 0.07 2.47 5.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.37 1.91 0.05 2.43 6.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.45 1.83 0.10 2.39 7.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.50 1.84 0.05 2.97 8.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.65 1.84 0.05 2.74 9.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.85 1.80 0.03 2.42 10.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 1.00 1.74 0.04 2.41 11.00 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.00 1.59 0.26 2.17

TABLE 12 Second exploration of Poly(acrylic acid-co maleic acid) + Poly(amine) bead. Phosphate Sample Polyamine BC Citrate BC Swelling No. bead ID Shell ID Shell wt % (mmol/g) (mmol/g) (gH2O/gGel) 1 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.00 1.55 0.38 2.20 2 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.03 2.00 0.04 2.45 3 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.06 2.01 0.04 2.50 4 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.09 1.98 0.06 2.46 5 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.12 1.98 0.02 2.60 6 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.15 1.93 0.09 2.47 7 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.20 1.95 0.05 2.35 8 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.30 1.93 0.05 2.49 9 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.40 1.90 0.04 2.50 10 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-4 0.50 1.89 0.04 2.29

TABLE 13 Exploration of Poly(acrylic acid) of different Molecular weights + Poly-amine bead Phosphate Sample Polyamine BC Citrate BC Swelling No. bead ID Shell ID Shell wt % (mmol/g) (mmol/g) (gH2O/gGel) 1 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 0.10 1.91 0.37 2.49 2 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 0.28 1.84 0.37 2.54 3 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 0.46 1.92 0.35 2.56 4 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 0.64 1.85 0.37 2.52 5 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 0.82 1.84 0.37 2.49 6 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-5 1.00 1.80 0.39 2.56 7 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 0.10 1.89 0.30 2.49 8 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 0.28 1.87 0.25 2.41 9 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 0.46 1.92 0.21 2.44 10 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 0.64 1.88 0.17 2.54 11 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 0.82 1.88 0.20 2.42 12 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-6 1.00 1.87 0.22 2.42 13 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 0.10 1.93 0.19 2.52 14 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 0.28 1.93 0.17 2.47 15 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 0.46 1.91 0.15 2.45 16 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 0.64 1.88 0.13 2.47 17 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 0.82 1.87 0.13 2.39 18 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-7 1.00 1.90 0.16 2.43 19 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-8 0.10 1.93 0.26 2.39 20 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-8 0.32 1.92 0.18 2.53 21 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-8 0.54 1.89 0.17 2.54 22 FR-26-52-1 Shell-A-8 0.76 1.85 0.15 2.43 23 FR-26-52-1 0.00 1.53 0.40 2.33

These examples show a significant increase in overall binding when a polyanionic polymer is deposited as a shell material over the controls (i.e. no shell present).

Example 9 Binding Capacity in Ex-vivo Aspirates

Using a tube placed in the lumen of the small intestine, healthy patients are given meal of the same composition as the one prepared for the digestion mimic in Example 6 and aliquots of chyme are then sampled.

Subjects are intubated with a double lumen polyvinyl tube with a mercury-weighted bag attached to the end of the tube to facilitate movement of the tube into the small intestine. Using fluoroscopy to direct placement, one aspiration aperture of the double lumen located in the stomach, and the other aperture is at the Ligament of Treitz (in the upper jejunum).

After correct tube placement, 550 mL of the liquefied test meal (supplemented with a marker, polyethylene glycol (PEG)—2 g/550 mL) is infused into the stomach through the gastric aperture at a rate of 22 mL per minute. It requires approximately 25 minutes for the entire meal to reach the stomach, simulating the duration of time required to eat normal meals.

Jejunal chyme is aspirated from the tube whose lumen is located at the Ligament of Treitz. This fluid is collected continuously during 30 minute intervals for a two and a half hour period. This results in 5 specimens that are mixed, measured for volume, and lyophilized.

A phosphate binding assay can be carried out on the ex-vivo aspirates. The phosphate binding procedure can be like the one described above with non-interfering buffer, except that the ex-vivo aspirate liquid is used (after reconstitution of the freeze-dried material in the proper amount of de-ionized water). The phosphate binding capacities in the ex-vivo aspirate can be calculated in the same way and are expected to be similar to those reported with the meal mimic experiments. 

1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising core-shell particles and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, said core-shell particles including a polymeric particle core microencapsulated in a polymeric shell, the polymeric particle core comprising crosslinked amine moieties, the polymeric shell comprising pendant acid groups.
 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising repeat units of an amine plus an intervening linker unit.
 3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein polymeric particle core is a crosslinked amine polymer comprising multiple repeating amine units separated by one or more linker units.
 4. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core is a copolymer comprising a crosslinked amine polymer.
 5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core is a crosslinked amine polymer which is insoluble and has a swelling ratio in a physiological isotonic buffer ranging from 1.2 to
 100. 6. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core is in the form of a spherical bead.
 7. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core has a mean diameter of less than 80 microns.
 8. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a polymer having pendant acid groups selected from carboxylic, sulfonic, hydrosulfonic, sulfamic, phosphoric, hydrophosphoric, phosphonic, hydrophosphonic, phosphoramidic, phenolic, boronic and a combination thereof.
 9. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a polymer selected from poly(acrylic acid), poly(styrene sulfonate), carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, carrageenan, alginate, or poly(methacrylic acid) esters, acrylic/maleic acid copolymers , styrene/maleic acid polymers, itaconic acid/acrylic copolymers, and fumaric/acrylic acid copolymers.
 10. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a polymer having a labile ester or anhydride form of either polysulfonic or polycarboxylic acids.
 11. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a polyacrylic acid polymer.
 12. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises an acrylic acid/maleic acid copolymer.
 13. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a crosslinked polymer.
 14. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.0001% to about 30%.
 15. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 14 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.1% to about 5%.
 16. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the shell comprises a polymer having a molecular weight ranging from about 3000 g/mole to about 250,000 g/mole.
 17. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core comprises amine moieties crosslinked with a crosslinking agent, the crosslinking agent being a compound having at least two functional groups, each functional group being selected from halogen, carbonyl, epoxy, ester, acid anhydride, acid halide, isocyanate, vinyl, and chloroformate.
 18. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric particle core comprises crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine having a formula selected from

with a crosslinking agent.
 19. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein said polymeric particle core comprises crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine having the formula

with a crosslinking agent.
 20. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 19 wherein the crosslinking agent is 1,3-dichloropropane or epichlorohydrin.
 21. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 20 wherein the crosslinking agent is 1,3-dichloropropane.
 22. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 20 wherein the crosslinking agent is epichlorohydrin.
 23. A pharmaceutical composition comprising core-shell particles and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, said core-shell particles including a polymeric particle core microencapsulated in a polymeric shell, the polymeric shell comprising pendant acid groups, and the polymeric particle core comprising crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine of formula (I) with a crosslinking agent,

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; m is equal to or greater than 1; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.
 24. A pharmaceutical composition comprising core-shell particles and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, said core-shell particles including a polymeric particle core microencapsulated in a polymeric shell, the polymeric shell comprising pendant acid groups, and the polymeric particle core comprising crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine of formula (IV) with a crosslinking agent,

wherein each n, independently, is equal to or greater than 3; each r, independently, is 0, 1, or 2; and each R₁, independently, is H or optionally substituted alkyl or aryl or is linked to a neighboring R₁ to form an optionally substituted alicyclic, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.
 25. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 wherein the polymeric particle core comprises crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine of formula

with a crosslinking agent, wherein n is 3, 4 or
 5. 26. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 25 wherein the polymeric particle core comprises crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine of formula

with a crosslinking agent.
 27. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 25 wherein the crosslinking agent is epichlorohydrin or 1,3-dichloropropane.
 28. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 26 wherein the crosslinking agent is epichlorohydrin or 1,3-dichloropropane.
 29. A pharmaceutical composition comprising core-shell particles formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient into an oral form, said core-shell particles including a polymeric particle core microencapsulated in a polymeric shell, the polymeric shell comprising a polyacrylic acid polymer, and the polymeric particle core comprising crosslinked amine moieties derived from crosslinking an amine of formula

with a crosslinking agent, wherein n is 3, 4 or
 5. 30. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 29 wherein the polymeric particle core has a mean diameter of less than 80 microns.
 31. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 23 wherein the shell is a crosslinked polymer.
 32. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 23 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.0001% to about 30%.
 33. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 23 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.1% to about 5%.
 34. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 wherein the shell is a crosslinked polymer.
 35. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.0001% to about 30%.
 36. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 24 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.1% to about 5%.
 37. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 29 wherein the shell is a crosslinked polymer.
 38. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 29 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.0001% to about 30%.
 39. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 29 wherein the weight ratio of the shell to the polymeric particle core ranges from about 0.1% to about 5%.
 40. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 comprising the core-shell particles formulated with the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient into an oral form.
 41. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 comprising the core-shell particles in an amount effective for treating hyperphosphatemia in humans.
 42. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1 wherein the polymeric shell is chemically anchored to the polymeric particle core. 